Facilitating LOS Debriefings:
A Training Manual
Lori K. McDonnell, Kimberly K. Jobe, R. Key Dismukes
NASA Ames Research Center
Part 3. Facilitation Techniques
| Part of your role as the instructor is to ensure that
the crewmembers analyze and evaluate LOS situations and their performance
in depth. One of the greatest difficulties you may encounter is getting
the crew to go beyond a superficial description of LOS events. The
objective is to encourage crewmembers to not just discuss what happened
-- they should discuss why they did what they did to manage the situation
and why the situation turned out the way it did. Discussing why helps
crewmembers better understand what knowledge and information played
a role in their decision-making process, which in turn can help them
learn to make better decisions in the future.
This section will demonstrate how to effectively use the techniques that are essential to successful facilitation. The next section (Part 4) will show how to integrate these techniques utilizing the C-A-L model. |
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 Use
questions to promote in-depth crew participation. |
Questions are useful to guide the crew to important topics and encourage them to analyze and evaluate their LOS performance in-depth. Although questions are one of your most useful tools, you should be wary of dominating the discussion with your own questions. To the extent necessary, you can use questions to help the crewmembers identify issues and follow up on topics, and to encourage them to thoroughly analyze their performance through discussion with each other. Ideally, questions should be phrased to require more than a simple "yes" or "no" answer; questions should push the crew to analyze their performance at a deeper level. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Note: The examples used in this section were taken from actual debriefings. The participants' titles have been substituted for names:
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| A good way to start a discussion of a LOS event is to show the video
segment and/or describe the situation and then ask an open-ended question:
'What went well (or not so well) there?" or lessons can be learned
from this?"
If the crew does not respond, try again with a more focused question: "Is there anything you would do differently if you had it to do over?" or "Did you see anything in the video that was not SOP?" |
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If crewmembers seem unsure of what to discuss next, or if they overlook
an important aspect of a situation, you may need to ask a question
to focus their attention on some topic or aspect. However, be careful
to phrase the question so it is not easy to answer with a simple yes
or no and so it does not leave the crew with nothing to say.
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Once the crew has begun to discuss a topic, you may need to encourage
them to explore in more depth what happened. Ask questions that require
the crewmembers to explore their thoughts and actions in the LOS.
Avoid asking questions that give the answer or leave little for them
to say.
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| Ask
questions that begin with what, how, or why to encourage deeper discussion. |
It is important to follow-up on topics initiated by the crewmembers and to encourage the crew to explore their topics fully. Following up on crew topics demonstrates to the crew that their thoughts and ideas are important and reinforces their initiative. To obtain greater depth and detail on topics initiated by the crewmembers, ask questions that begin with what, how, and why. For instance, in the first example below, the more skillful instructor follows up and gets the CA to comment on the FE's observation while the less-effective instructor moves on to another topic. In the second example, a more in-depth answer is elicited by the more-effective instructor. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Encourage
the crew to discover their own answers. |
If a crewmember makes a comment or asks a question, avoid using this as a springboard for presenting your own perspectives. Instead, turn the topic back to the crew for discussion. Continue to redirect their questions and comments to encourage the crew to work out answers for themselves. Your questions are a powerful tool for blending your observations into the discussion without dominating. After the crewmembers have addressed everything they can, you can add teaching points they have not yet discovered. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Make
sure that all crewmembers are fully drawn into the discussion. |
It is important to ensure that all members of the crew actively participate in the debriefing so they can all experience the higher level of learning that results from taking an active role in the learning process. Also, the crew cannot fully analyze and understand their performance as a team without each member's perspective. The following techniques can be used to promote active participation by all crewmembers. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Drawing Out a Quiet CrewmemberIf one crewmember does not volunteer comments and responds only minimally to questions, you can use several techniques to encourage his or her participation:
It is relatively easy to respond to this type of question because there is no right or wrong answer and all crewmembers are likely to have an opinion.
If your questions are predominantly answered by the same crewmember, repeat the question after the dominant crewmember has responded so that the quiet crewmember will be required to participate and communicate his or her opinions and ideas.
If a crewmember sits silently while another does all of the talking, it may be helpful to ask the silent one to expand on what was said by discussing a new aspect of the topic. This technique will make it easier for the quiet member to find something to say.
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| Avoid
unwittingly hindering crew participation. |
Drawing Out an Entire CrewSometimes all or most of the crewmembers are unresponsive and getting them to participate seems like pulling teeth When this happens, you should first review your own participation to ensure that you are not unwittingly sending covert messages that discourage crew participation. To instigate crew participation, it may be helpful to start with the more junior members so they will not be put in the position of potentially disagreeing with the CA early in the session. The next section suggests specific ways to stimulate participation when crews do not immediately respond. |
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| If crewmembers do not immediately respond to questions, the following techniques may be helpful in eliciting responses. Start with the highest level of facilitation and progressively work down only through the levels necessary so that facilitation stays at the highest level possible. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Don't
answer for the crew when they don't immediately respond. |
High-Level Facilitation
Pause at least three to four seconds after asking a question rather than immediately answering for the crew. Most crewmembers will feel motivated to say something to end the uncomfortable silence (see the following section: Use of Silence). |
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Intermediate-Level Facilitation
When crewmembers do not answer a question after five to ten seconds of silence, it may be necessary to rephrase the question to make the intent of the question clearer or to ask a more specific question. If they still do not answer, again pause to allow them time to formulate a thoughtful response. Rephrasing the question may give the crewmembers the cue they need to spark a response, as demonstrated in the examples which follow. By being persistent and patient, you reinforce that the crewmembers are responsible for their own learning and that they are not going to get away with passively sitting by and waiting to be told the answers. When you answer for the crew or rephrase questions in a way that leaves little for the crew to say, you inhibit in-depth crew participation and hinder crew learning.
Low-Level Facilitation
If the above facilitation techniques still do not elicit a response from the crew, or if the response given lacks depth, it may be necessary to briefly instruct the crew to ensure that they learn from the situation so they can apply the lesson on the line. If it becomes necessary to instruct the crew on certain issues, be sure to verify that they understand and agree because if they don't the opportunity for learning may be lost. It is important to continue trying to involve the crew as much as possible. Once you have shared your knowledge with the crew and elicited their agreement, try to return to a higher level of facilitation by asking for the crew's opinion, asking them to expand on the issue, or asking them to give an example of what you discussed from their line experience. |
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| Use silence to elicit thoughtful crew responses. | Silence can be a very useful tool to elicit thoughtful crew responses. Most people are uncomfortable with silence in a group setting and are more likely to make some kind of response the longer the silence lasts. Without realizing it, instructors often allow only a second or two for a response to their question before either calling on someone else or giving the answer. However, a second is generally not long enough to formulate a thoughtful response, especially to complex questions. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Studies show that waiting three to four seconds after asking
a question greatly improves the number and quality of responses. The
specific benefits of pausing at least three seconds include:
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| In order to minimize the discomfort often associated with even brief
periods of silence, it is important to behave in a way that makes
the crew feel at ease.
For the crew to feel comfortable with silence, it is important that you appear at ease. Appearing tense and anxious will give the crew clear non-verbal cues that silence is not appreciated.
Sitting on the edge of your seat may be interpreted by the crew as a sip of impatience. Sitting back in your seat, however, helps demonstrate that you are comfortable allowing periods of silence for the crew to think before they respond.
Smiling conveys reassurance and acceptance, which can help put the crew at ease. |
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Silence can be used throughout the session to encourage crew participation,
not only after asking a question but also after crew comments. Using
silence is a high-level facilitation strategy-if silence alone does
not elicit crew discussion, try the next level of facilitation.
High-Level Facilitation
When crewmembers do not immediately respond, be patient; remain silent rather than answer for them.
When there is a lull in crew discussion, be patient and wait for the crew to say more rather than immediately adding your own input.
Intermediate-Level Facilitation(Also see Troubleshooting in the previous section.)
If the crew does not resume discussion after a period of silence, encourage further discussion by asking them to elaborate on their previous discussion
Low-Level Facilitation(Also see Troubleshooting in the previous section.)
If the crew does not resume discussion after a lengthy silence and cannot elaborate further, use the opportunity to provide the crew with positive feedback on the issue they were discussing. Not only will the feedback reinforce the issue at hand, it will also reinforce crew discussion in general. |
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| Good listening skills are as important to an instructor as
good speaking skills. Active listening is one ' of the most useful
tools you can use to encourage continued participation; it shows the
crew that you are listening and paying attention to them and that
you understand what they are saying, which in turn encourages them
to keep talking. Active listening ranges from simple non-verbal gestures
to expanding on crew comments. In all cases, the objective is to encourage
the crew to keep talking and, in the more complex forms, to encourage
deeper discussion of the issues. The following are examples of the
various levels of active listening, in order from the simplest to
the most complex.
Nod, smile, make eye contact, sit forward in your chair, or otherwise indicate that you are interested in what is being said.
Interject with "Yes?", "Uh-huh... ", "I see...", etc., to indicate that you are following what they are saying and to encourage them to say more.
Repeat part of what the speaker said as a question directed back to the crew (e.g., "So you weren't sure if you were cleared for takeoff?").
Repeat what the speaker said in different words while retaining the same meaning (e.g., if speaker says "We didn't use. good communication" you might respond with "You didn't let each other know what you were doing?").
Expand on what the speaker said by implying more than the speaker intended (e.g., if speaker says "We didn't use good communication" you might respond with "So if you had communicated better you could have avoided getting overloaded?). With all of these active listening techniques, the most important aspect is the tone you convey to the crew. It must be apparent from your tone that you are genuinely interested in what they have to say. Furthermore, you must convey that you are interested in their perspectives, not just in leading them to predetermined answers. |
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| The videotape of the LOS session is a useful tool for enhancing the debriefing. Relevant events need to be marked on the tape during the LOS session so you can draw the crew's attention to important points for discussion. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| An important contribution of videos may be to remind crews what transom at critical segments during the LOS because it is often difficult for participants to remember specific details of the typically long and stressful sessions. Videos enable crews to review their actions and then examine and gain insight into their behavior with the detachment of observers. Videos can also encourage self-assessment by helping crewmembers identify behaviors that were either helpful or harmful to the outcome. The realistic feedback that videos provide can make it easier for you to involve the entire crew in a discussion of team performance, thus enhancing the overall potential of the training session. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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 Index
important events.
From your experience with the LOS scenario you will be aware of critical events that will challenge the crew. Index those events on the videotape during the LOS and make notes to remind yourself of important points to discuss. Also, index noteworthy examples of good and poor crew performance.
The purpose of showing the video is to enhance crew analysis by refreshing their memories and giving them the opportunity to objectively evaluate their performance. If you show a video segment without discussing it, you waste both time and the opportunity for discussion.
In a one-hour session, 3-6 segments are usually all you will have time to adequately discuss. Try to select these 3-6 short segments to illustrate some major aspects of crew performance (good or bad) rather than showing an entire phase of flight (e.g., from top of descent to touchdown). For aspects of a crew's performance that cannot be clearly illustrated by the video, it is best to steer the discussion to these topics without introducing them with a video segment.
Be very familiar with the video equipment so you can quickly find the events marked on the tape. Use the automatic index marker to find events-playing the video in fast forward while searching for segments wastes time and distracts the crew.
Set the scene by describing the situation and where in the flight the segment to be discussed occurs. You may also find it useful to remind the crew that they will be expected to analyze what they see.
Pause the video when you or a crewmember makes a comment so the comment can be heard and understood. Crewmembers will feel that you are genuinely interested in what they have to say if you pause to give them your undivided attention.
Pause the video to call attention to and elicit crew discussion of a specific aspect of crew performance shown on the video. For example, rather dm talking during the video and forcing the crew to compete with the noise, stop the video and encourage crew discussion.
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