Facilitating LOS Debriefings:
A Training Manual
Lori K. McDonnell 1,
Kimberly K. Jobe 1,
R. Key Dismukes 2
NASA Ames Research Center
Summary
This manual is a practical guide to help airline instructors effectively
facilitate debriefings of Line Oriented Simulations (LOS). It is based
on a recently completed study of Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT)
debriefings at several U.S. airlines. As a companion piece to the published
report of that study (LOFT Debriefings. An Analysis of Instructor Techniques
and Crew Participation by R.K. Dismukes, K.K. Jobe, and L.K. McDonnell,
NASA Technical Memorandum 110442, March 1997), this manual presents specific
facilitation tools ors can use to achieve debriefing objectives. The approach
of the manual is to be flexible so it can be tailored to the individual
needs of each airline. Part One clarifies the purpose and objectives of
facilitation in the LOS setting. Part Two provides recommendations for
clarifying roles and expectations and presents a model for organizing
discussion. Part Three suggests techniques for eliciting active crew participation
and in-depth analysts and evaluation. Finally, in Part Four, these techniques
are organized according to the Facilitation model Examples of how to effectively
use the techniques are provided throughout, including strategies to try
when the debriefing objectives are not being fully achieved.
1 San Jose State University
Foundation
2 NASA Ames Research Center
Part 1. An Introduction to Facilitation
 Keep
the discussion crew-centered. |
How much crews learn in Line Oriented Simulations (LOS)
and take back to the line hinges on the effectiveness of the LOS debriefing.
The simulation itself is a busy and intense experience; thoughtful
discussion afterwards is necessary so the crew can sort out and interpret
what happened and why. As the instructor, you are expected to encourage
the crewmembers to analyze their LOS performance on their own, rather
than lecturing to them about what they did right and wrong. This "crew-centered"
approach emphasizes self-discovery and self-critique. The crew-centered
approach also draws upon the crew's professional experience and motivation
to perform well to enhance learning. |
| Encourage
crewmembers to participate actively. |
The rationale for crew-centered debriefings is that
adults learn and remember more when they participate actively and
make their own analyses rather than when they listen passively to
someone else's. Active participation in the debriefing requires the
crewmembers to process the information more deeply, enabling them
to draw upon that information more readily and more effectively in
a wide range of line situations. |
| Promote
transfer of learning to the line. |
Another advantage of the crew-centered approach is that
crewmembers who actively discuss Crew Resource Management (CRM) concepts
and company procedures tend to "buy-in" more deeply than
those who are only given lectures on proper procedures. Therefore,
crewmembers who participate actively may be more likely to transfer
learning from the LOS to the line. The goal is for crewmembers to
develop the habit of analyzing their own CRM and technical performance
following line operations, a practice which is still rare in civil
operations. The LOS debriefing provides an opportunity for showing
crews how to debrief and for illustrating the benefits of self-debriefing. |
|
Facilitation does have one distinct disadvantage: it
is considerably slower than lecturing so less material can be covered
in a short time. Some types of material, such as teaching the mechanics
of a hydraulic system, are better suited to lecturing than facilitation.
However, this type of instruction is not the p purpose of the LOS
debriefing; the p purpose is to help crews analyze their performance
and identify how they used CRM to manage all aspects of the LOS. (CRM
is a method of 9 all aspects of flight operations. Thus, discussion
of CRM includes flight management issues such as teamwork, workload
management, task management, and communication, as well as associated
technical issues.)
The facilitation techniques presented in this manual are intended
to provide you, the instructor, with a set of tools you can use
to effectively facilitate crew-centered debriefings. These tools
supplement, rather than replace, the skills you already possess.
Becoming skillful at facilitation requires practice, but once mastered
it enables you to increase what crewmembers learn and take back
to the line.
|
| Use
facilitation to meet debriefing objectives. |
Effective facilitation enables you to meet the following
objectives of crew-centered debriefings: |
|
 Crewmembers
discuss issues directly with each other (rather than interacting solely
with you, the instructor) and discover as much on their own as possible.
The
crew thoroughly analyzes and evaluates what happened in the LOS,
how they handled the situation, what went well, what could be improved,
and how to improve it.
The
crew recognizes how CRM techniques helped them manage or could have
helped them manage the situations they encountered in the LOS.
Crewmembers
leave the session with a better understanding of how they can use
CRM on the line to enhance safety and efficiency.
The
crew is encouraged to develop the habit of self-debriefing following
line operations.
|
Instruction vs. Facilitation
| Ensure
crewmembers do most of the talking.
Adapt
the level of facilitation you use to the capabilities of each crew.
|
In a crew-centered debriefing, the objective is
for you, as the instructor, to facilitate crew discussion so that
the crewmembers do most of the talking, participate proactively, discuss
issues with each other, and thoroughly analyze the situations that
confronted them as well as how they managed those situations. Some
of the CRM literature espouses the ideal that crews debrief themselves
and use the instructor as a resource. Realistically, most crews lack
sufficient experience in analyzing the CRM aspects of cockpit operations
to be able to conduct their own debriefings without assistance. Thus,
as the instructor, you need to facilitate the crew's analysis of their
LOS performance and avoid centering the debriefing on your own perceptions.
Crews vary considerably in how well they analyze what happened m the
LOS and how well they respond to encouragement to participate actively;
thus, you must adapt the level of facilitation to the capabilities
of each crew. (The levels of facilitation are discussed in detail
later in this section.) |
| Exercise
your dual role as instructor and facilitator. |
The concept of facilitation was originally derived
from settings outside of aviation. In some of those settings the facilitator
would act only as a moderator of discussion and lacked the technical
expertise held by the group members. In the LOS setting, however,
you play the dual role of facilitator and instructor. Through facilitation
you enable the crew to figure things out for themselves; your expertise
as an instructor enhances the crew's understanding of the points they
missed on their own. |
| Reinforce
good crew performance following crew analysis. |
Facilitation does not require that you withhold
your own perspectives. From 'the back of the cab' you often see things
the crew does not notice and you can share your experience in how
CRM can be used to manage the specific events that occurred in the
LOS scenario. Since crews learn better when guided to self-discovery,
you should use facilitation to promote that self-discovery in the
crew and encourage the crewmembers to analyze their performance to
the fullest extent possible. Once crewmembers have completed their
analysis, you can reinforce the things the crew did well. For the
points crewmembers miss, you can provide the instruction necessary
to ensure the objectives are met. |
|
Additionally, at times you may need to correct
erroneous statements made by the crew and/or provide specific information
the crewmembers lack. This is better done by direct instruction than
through facilitation. You can either integrate brief instructional
comments into the crew's discussion or provide instruction as needed
after crewmembers have finished their analysis.
When guiding the crew's analysis, you should avoid creating the
impression of leading the crew to predetermined answers. The crew
will not be motivated to participate unless you convey that the
topics, issues, and perceptions they raise are important
|
What You Should Do to Facilitate the
Debriefing
|
|
Set
expectations for crew participation.
Guide
the session to the extent necessary to achieve the debriefing objectives.
Adjust
facilitation to the level needed to engage the crew to the maximum
extent possible.
Draw
out quiet crewmembers.
Ensure
that all critical topics are covered.
Integrate
instructional points as needed into the crew's discussion.
Reinforce
positive aspects of the crew's behavior.
|
What You Should Avoid Doing
|
|
Avoid
lecturing and having the debriefing become an instructor-centered
session.
Long monologues or giving your own analysis and evaluation before
allowing the crew to work issues out for themselves preempts the
crew's own analysis and participation. Avoiding lecturing does not
mean you cannot teach, but you should teach through facilitation
by integrating your own perspectives into the crew's discussion.
Rather than telling the crew what they did wrong during the LOS
and how they can improve, try to get the crew to figure it out for
themselves. If they discover what they need to work on by themselves,
then they are much more likely to learn from their mistakes and
carry that learning over to the line.
Avoid
giving your own analysis and evaluation before the crew has completed
their analysis.
Crews learn the most from their LOS experience when they make their
own analyses. It is important that crewmembers learn to analyze
and evaluate their own performance so that they can develop the
habit of debriefing their performance following line operations.
If you give your analysis before the crew does, the crew will feel
less responsible for making their own analysis. When a second instructor
is playing the role of a crewmember, he or she should participate
as a crewmember but should wait and give his or her analysis after
the 'real' crewmembers have had the opportunity to analyze their
performance as a crew.
Avoid
giving the impression that only your perceptions are important.
You need to make it clear to the crew that you are interested in
what they have to say in order to encourage them to participate
actively and analyze and evaluate their performance in depth.
Avoid
interrupting crew discussion.
Interrupting shows a lack of interest in the crew's views and may
disrupt their train of thought and hinder their process of self-discovery.
Interruptions also undermine the crew's sense of responsibility
for making their own analysis and evaluation. Rather dm interrupting
a crewmember, try writing a note to yourself and then bring up your
issue after the crewmember has completed his or her comment. (Interrupting
may be necessary if a crewmember makes a statement contrary to your
company's SOP or the FARS.)
Avoid
interrogation; be positive when discussing problems.
In order for the crew to be able to take responsibility for initiating
topics and discussing issues interactively, you must work to keep
the discussion crew-centered. Asking questions in a manner that
resembles interrogation rather than guidance can hinder crew discussion,
forcing the crew into a reactive, rather than a proactive, role.
Avoid
having a rigid agenda.
Have the crew help develop the agenda to encourage them to identify
areas in the LOS where they did well and/or need improvement. Keep
the focus of the debriefing on topics introduced by the crew, but
introduce your own points as necessary to expand on crew-initiated
topics and to cover important issues not initiated by the crew.
Avoid
shortchanging high-performing crews by cutting their sessions short.
Do not assume that because a crew did well there is nothing to
talk about so a shorter session will suffice. Crews that perform
well may not know why the LOS went well. Make sure that these crews
recognize and discuss which CRM techniques resulted in their positive
outcomes so the crewmembers can transfer this knowledge to other
situations and when pairing with other crewmembers on the line.
Good crews can learn from analyzing what they did well and why it
worked. By analyzing their performance the crew can learn what strategies
were effective and how to use those strategies on the line. Crewmembers
are more likely to offer effective performance to the line if it
has been reinforced by discussion.
|
Levels of Facilitation
|
|
Your role as the instructor in the debriefing session will vary
as a function of the level of facilitation needed for each crew. Ideally,
the crew will be able to analyze and evaluate their own performance
and you will need to give only minimal guidance, thus using high-level
facilitation. Unfortunately, this rarely happens in the current training
environment. Most crews lack the experience to participate at this
level. Thus, you must adapt to the capabilities of each crew. Currently,
most debriefing sessions are conducted at an intermediate level of
facilitation. These sessions are largely driven by the instructor,
who leads the crew to important topics and questions to evoke in-depth
analysis and evaluation by the crew. |
| Use
the highest level of facilitation possible.
Adapt
the level to accommodate varying needs throughout the session.
|
The level at which facilitation is conducted is a broad continuum
from high (most desirable) to low (least desirable). To illustrate
this, we will discuss the high, intermediate, and low ranges in detail.
Be aware that you may need to adjust the level of facilitation to
whatever level is appropriate throughout the session. You should always
strive to work at the highest level of facilitation (i.e., the least
interference on your part) at which each crew is able to respond.
If you facilitate at too low of a level (i.e. more interference from
you), the crew will be prevented from participating to their full
capability. A sign of skillful facilitation is being able to recognize
what level is appropriate for each crew, as well as being able to
adapt to the varying needs of individual crewmembers as the debriefing
discussion shifts from one topic to another. |
|
If you consistently use facilitation to generate crew-centered debriefings,
crews will gain experience as they go through recurrent LOS and they
will participate at increasingly higher levels each year. |
High-Level Facilitation
|
|
High-level facilitation is possible when the crew discovers and
discusses important issues on their own with little guidance. Debriefing
at this level provides the deepest and most enduring learning because
the crewmembers guide their own self-discovery. For facilitating at
this level the crewmembers must be able to identify important topics
and issues that arose during the LOS, set an agenda for discussing
these issues, and critically analyze the situation they faced and
evaluate how well they performed.
At this level of facilitation, your role as the instructor is to
inform the crew of the objectives for the debriefing, outline the
debriefing process, and assist in guiding the discussion only when
necessary. As the instructor, from your advantaged position as an
experienced observer, you serve as a resource for the crew to help
reinforce crew observations and supplement their perceptions. Although
you retain responsibility for ensuring that the debriefing objectives
are met, you achieve this through general guidance rather than leading
the discussion moment-to-moment.
|
Intermediate-Level Facilitation
|
|
When crewmembers are not as adept at conducting their own analysis
and evaluation of the LOS, you must lead the discussion more directly.
At the intermediate level of facilitation you may have to help the
crew discover important issues and lessons by asking questions which
lead them to specific issues and topics. You may also need to encourage
the crew to analyze the situation and their performance in greater
detail. At this level, crewmembers are able to achieve self-discovery
through analysis and evaluation of their performance with your guidance.
You may need to supplement crew analyses substantially, but should
do so only after the crewmembers have completed their own analysis. |
Low-Level Facilitation
|
|
Low-level facilitation does not imply inadequate facilitation on
your part as the instructor; rather, it is the necessary and appropriate
level to use when crews do not respond to higher levels. When crewmembers
show little initiative and respond only superficially to your efforts
to get them to analyze the LOS situations and evaluate their own performance,
you may be forced to be more direct and to lead the discussion step
by step. However, few crews are truly incapable of participating at
a higher level. (Before retreating to this level of facilitation,
be sure that you are not unwittingly discouraging crew participation
by conveying the tone of an interrogation or by showing a lack of
interest in what the crewmembers say.) At this level, self-discovery
by the crew is limited but you should still use facilitation techniques
to lead the crew to critical issues, appropriate solutions, and correct
evaluation. At the end of the discussion of each topic you may have
to explicitly summarize the nature of the problem encountered in the
LOS and describe how it should be handled. When low-level facilitation
is necessary, continue trying to elicit crew participation at a higher
level. If it becomes necessary to instruct the crew on important points,
confirm that they understand and agree, and continue to encourage
them to initiate other discussion on the own. |
Criteria for Effective Crew Participation
|
|
In order to determine the appropriate level of facilitation to use,
you need to be aware of how capable the crewmembers are of participating.
The following criteria can be used to determine what level is appropriate
for each crew at various times during the debriefing. If the crewmembers
meet all of these criteria, high-level facilitation is best. If not,
intermediate- or low-level facilitation may need to be used. |
|
Crewmembers
analyze in depth their LOS performance, discussing the situations
they confronted, what they did to manage the situations, and why they
made the decisions and performed the actions they did.
Crewmembers
evaluate in depth their LOS performance, discussing what went well,
what did not go well, and how their performance could have been
improved.
Crewmembers
discuss how CRM techniques helped them manage or could have helped
them manage the situations they encountered in the LOS.
Crewmembers
address each other directly and inteactively discuss the LOS rather
than merely respond to your direction.
|
Criteria for Effective Instructor Facilitation
|
|
Your effectiveness in facilitating the debriefing can be according
to the following criteria. |
|
You
facilitate the crew discussion at the highest level possible, guiding
the discussion only to the extent necessary to help the crew accomplish
the objectives of the debriefing.
You
modify the level of your facilitation to accomodate the crew's needs
throughout the debriefing. If the crew does not need guidance, you
refrain from interfering with crew discussion. If the crew needs
guidance, you use intermediate level synergies to elicit continued
and/or deeper discussion and revert to low-level facilitation only
if necessary to ensure t lessons are learned.
You
ensure that the crewmembers analyze their performance in depth,
identify CRM techniques that played or should have played a role
in the LOS, and discuss the LOS with each other in an interactive
way.
You
ensure that all critical topics are covered.
|
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