Crew Resource Management
COMMUNICATION
Communication
True and effective communication occurs when there is a sincere and conscious effort by all parties.
Definitions
- Effective communication is being able to communicate your thoughts and feelings in such a way that the other person shares the same meaning you do
- The imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing or signs
- The process of exchanging ideas and information by the use of a common system of verbal and non-verbal signals
A good example of poor communication is from list of instructions from an aircraft electronics manual as quoted by the Journal of the Institute of Scientific and Technical Communicators:
"The internal guidance system uses deviations to generate corrective commands to fly the aircraft from a position where it is to a position where it isn't."
"In the event that the position where it is now is not the same as the position where it originally wasn't, the system will acquire a variation. Variations are beyond the scope of this simple explanation."
Key Facts About the Way We Communicate
- We tend to protect, maintain and enhance ourselves when we communicate
- We defend against looking ignorant or foolish for fear of ridicule
- We wish to maintain consistency, we tend to support our opinion even when we suspect that we may not be totally correct
- We wish to feel valued, worthwhile, belonging and meaningful. This means that we must be acknowledged with respect and trust
- Reality is second to perception - and our mindset may be very difficult to change
- People behave according to their perceptions; may not be aware of the level of risk
- Emotions always take first place, feelings are facts
- Commitment comes from self-determination, people have their own motivations
Modes of Communication
Verbal - verbal communication occurs when words are used to communicate, either orally or in writing
Non-Verbal - non-verbal communication occurs when body language, eye contact, posture, gestures, touch, silence - anything other than words - is used to communicate
Symbolic - symbolic communication occurs as a result of our appearance - clothes, hair, jewelry, make of car, etc.
7% of all communication is accomplished Verbally.
38% of communication is the result of unconscious signals and readings, such as tone or sound of voice
55% of all communication is achieved through Non-Verbal And Symbolic means (body language.)
Communication Process
There are four elements in the communication process - the sender, the message, the receiver and the feedback.
Human beings acting as the sender or receiver are influenced by many factors - their perceptions, attitudes, values, knowledge, expectations, language skills, experience and their relationship to "the other person." These influences act like filters and can impact on the process of sending and receiving messages.
Identifying Assumptions
Crew members' clear understanding of cockpit communication is imperative to effective CRM and the ultimate safe operation of the aircraft. Obstacles in the communication process must be identified before they can be addressed and removed. Are you guilty of these assumptions?
Assumption #1
Do you assume that the message sent is the same as the message received? Or do you consider that the message sent is rarely the same as the message received? If you operate under the first assumption, you would be correct if you were communicating with a machine. However, almost all communication in organizational settings involves the sending of messages from one human to another. Consequently, the message sent is rarely the same as the message received. Each of us has our own unique set of attitudes, motivations, and perceptual frames and we filter incoming messages to some extent. The message we think we are sending may be substantially different from the message that is received.
Assumption #2
Do you assume that you communicate only when you consciously choose to do so? Or do you assume that communication is often unplanned and unconscious? The truth is, you cannot not communicate. Simply being in the presence of another person is to communicate with that person, even if you choose not to do so. Such non-verbal stimuli as physical stature, dress and gestures may all serve as unintended messages in the communication process. Furthermore, what others have heard about you and their mental image of you often contradicts the message you hope to transmit. The total message sent incorporates not only the intended messages, but the unintended messages as well. Remember, you cannot not communicate.
Assumption #3
Do you assume that meanings are inherent in words? Or do you assume that meanings originate in people? When structuring messages we often assume that the words constituting the message have a fixed, predictable meaning. We are surprised when others do not understand what we believe to be obvious. If we assume that others may attach their own definitions and connotations to words, then we are not so surprised when semantic confusion arises. For example, "impending layoff" may mean "tomorrow I get axed" to one person, and "I wonder who will be cut" to another. Words have a fixed meaning only when one machine communicates with another.
Assumption #4
Do you assume that the communication process ceases after the message has been received? Or do you assume that feedback is an essential element of the communication process? Many people assume that the communication process ends when the message reaches its destination. Unfortunately, this assumption ignores the fact that feedback is necessary if the sender is at all concerned about the impact of that message. Has the message been understood? Has action been taken? How should the message have been structured in order to achieve the desired results? Each of these questions can be answered only by feedback from the receiver. Sending the message is only part of the communication process; the other part is being responsive to feedback from the receiver.
Assumption #5
Do you assume that if a communication breakdown occurs, it is invariably the recipient's fault? Or do you assume that a communication breakdown may be a function of your own communication style? There is a saying popular among public speaking teachers, "if the audience is falling asleep, someone should wake up the speaker." Is the communication problem with the sender's behaviour rather than with the receiver's behaviour? How can the message best be adapted to the receiver's attitudes, motivations and perceptual frame?
Assumption #6
Do you assume that most communication problems in your organization could be prevented with communication hardware? Or do you assume that most communication problems in your organization could be prevented with communications software? Hardware includes gadgets, gimmicks, procedures and techniques designed to facilitate information exchange. For example, information routing slips, suggestion boxes, and periodic feedback sessions are types of communication hardware. Software includes the assumptions, attitudes and knowledge you have about the communication process.
After analyzing the six common assumptions you have concluded that effective communication does not just happen, you have taken the first step in changing your own communication style. If you have concluded that effective communication requires concerted effort, you have taken the next step.
"The wonder is not that we communicate so well
the wonder is that we communicate at all."
Samuel Johnson
Essential Verbal Communication Skills in CRM
Communication can affect the safety of the operation. Using five aspects of effective verbal communication will assist crew members to communicate in a clear and precise manner.
Inquiry: Good decisions are based on the quality of information that is assessed. In the cockpit environment we scan instruments to gain information. In varying degrees, the same seeking of information from flight crew, cabin crew, dispatch and ATC should also be brought under consideration when making complex cockpit decisions. One drawback of asking questions in the cockpit is the fear of embarrassment. Clarification of an action or intended action is a right among crew members.
Advocacy: Advocacy is the clear stating of one's position, even if it is contrary to the accepted position. Should a crew member disagree with an action or an intended action, it is the crew member's responsibility to advocate their position. Advocacy is also the attitude of an individual accepting another crew member's perspective and rationalizing the different points of view for the best operational decision.
Listening: The art of listening appears to be a reoccurring failure in many accident reports. Active listening is an action, it is not a passive function. It requires the listener to actively inquire and respond, confirm to the transmitter that the message has been received and understood.
Conflict Resolution: If crew members are effectively advocating their positions, eventually there will be a conflict of opinion. An effective resolution process will help the flight crew to operate efficiently. Conflict can be constructive if cockpit issues are dealt with rationally. Problems may arise when the conflict becomes external to the task at hand. Outside issues should be deferred until another time while the crew deals with the task at hand.
Critique: Proper critique is an important element of the successful operation of flight. It begins in pre-flight, continues during the operation of the flight and ends in a post flight debriefing. Critique is an analysis of events, past or future. It is an impersonal survey of how the operation can be improved. All crew members' input to the critique process will improve total crew performance and ultimately improve the safety and efficiency of the operation.
Active Listening
The active listener attends to the words and projects their mind into that of the speaker, so that they can align their thoughts and feelings more closely to those of the speaker. Active listening consists of the following two skills:
Non-Verbal - Attending (to build and maintain rapport)
- Face the speaker, smile, look relaxed
- Maintain eye contact
- Encourage the other to speak
Verbal - Questions
A. Closed Questions (for short answers)
- Restrict the range of possible responses
- Useful in getting specific information quickly
- Improper use can make a person feel like hey are being interrogated
Example:
How many duty managers are there?
How long are your shifts?
B. Open-Ended Questions (for long answers)
- Allows the person a lot of freedom of response
- Useful for identifying attitudes and beliefs
- Can be quite time consuming
Example:
What is your observation on the pilot's techniques in this area?
Which other areas would you like to draw our attention to?
C. Probe Questions (for more information)
- Ask the person to clarify or elaborate
- Can be verbal or non-verbal
Example:
Tell me more about that?
I see...how did it work out?
D. Paraphrasing (to show understanding and encouragement)
- Putting the other person's ideas or feeling into your own words
Example:
So, if I understand correctly, you've outlined two problems; double exits and the lack of a stop bar on the runway
Active Listening Is:
- The genuine desire to understand another person's perception
- Listening and expressing - understanding of what another person has said
- Sensitivity to another's thoughts and feelings
Active Listening Is Not:
- Passive or token
- Advice given
- Agreement or disagreement
- Judgmental or critical
- Argumentative
The Art of Effective Listening
Being an effective listener takes practice and a sincere effort on behalf of the listener. Problems in effective listening are:
- We speak at approximately 125 words per minute
- We have the capacity to listen at 900 words per minute
Our brain spends this excess time:
- Pre-planning (anticipation) - preoccupation with formulating a response and not listening to what the sender is saying
- Detouring (wandering) - waiting for a key word and when it comes up, take the conversation into another area of interest
- Debating - playing the devil's advocate; regardless of what was said, they take the opposite point of view
- Tuning Out - when a message has been heard repeatedly, after a while the receiver does not listen because it is felt that the message is not important
The effective listener is:
- Caring
- Trustworthy with integrity
- Accepting
- Lets you talk
- Focuses on thoughts and feelings
- Constructive, focuses on problem solving, not blame
- Encourages self-determination
- Is capable of active listening
Listen to More than Words
Effective listening takes into consideration all aspects of communication - verbal, non-verbal and symbolic. For pilots, most communication takes place in the cockpit. This environment is ripe for communication error and misunderstandings because words exclusively represents just 7% of total communication. The communication process can be enhanced by an additional 38% by paying particular attention to the individual's speech characteristics:
- Rate of speech Is the individual speaking quickly or slowly? Generally, people speak more quickly when they are excited, angry or upset. Speaking slowly generally suggests calmness and control
- Inflection Which words does the individual emphasize? Inflections can help indicate what is most important to the individual
- Tone of Voice Is the individual's voice loud or soft, harsh or smooth? Tone of voice can help to determine the individual's emotional state. It can be critical in determining the stress level of other crew members
Critique
Critique is an efficiency or performance analysis of future, current or past events.
All crew members should be encouraged to give critique to enhance the flight operation. Critique is constructive. It is what we think will work best, monitoring of our decisions to ensure performance is as expected, and a debrief as to what will improve total crew performance next time. Critique is a continual process that challenges the dynamic environment of flight.
Communicating Criticism
Occasionally, mistakes happen. Bear in mind that people do not make mistakes on purpose but they are the result of a multitude of factors that may be influencing the individual at any one time. Miscommunication, task overload, misunderstanding of targets, stress or fatigue are some of the factors which could induce errors. Perhaps just letting the person know the consequences of his or her behaviour is enough the make the point. Other times, criticism must be communicated. The most effective way to do this is
- Avoid criticizing the person; focus on the behaviour exhibited instead
- Describe the specific behaviour you observed
- Avoid being sarcastic or parental
- Avoid using vague or general statements
- Avoid using anger
- Avoid asking questions for which you already know the answer
- Describe the impact of the behaviour on others in the working environment
- Describe the consequences of the behaviour. It is important to help the person see what type of consequences it might have for him or her personally over a period of time
- Reach an agreement on how to change behaviour. If the person chooses not to change the behaviour after being made aware of its negative impact and consequences, the person is either an intentional trouble maker or under severe emotional strain. Proper disciplinary action should be taken. If the person agrees to modify his or her behaviour, then a process should be agreed upon to provide supportive and positive feedback.
Do
- Encourage others to talk
- Be tentative, explore
- Express your feelings objectively
- Focus on other's self-determination
- Use problem-sharing approach
Do Not
- Degrade the other person, especially in public
- Be dogmatic or self-righteous
- Ignore other's feelings or ideas
- Argue
- Interrupt
Conflict Resolution
The key principle in resolving conflict in the cockpit is the determination of
What is right, not who is right
When crew members advocate their position, a difference of opinion in the cockpit arises. CRM principles recognize this conflict as not only healthy, but expected. All crew member's input is a required ingredient for synergy to become active.
A problem begins when outside conflict enters the cockpit, when heated emotion, bias, or lack of respect taint the real issue.
- Is it a cockpit issue or does it pertain to something beyond the confines of this cockpit?
- If it is not a cockpit issue, set it aside and deal with it once you are on the ground. Maintain a professional attitude.
- If it is a cockpit issue, resolve it based on what is right and not who is right. Rely on an impartial source of information if possible, an Aircraft Operations Manual or Air Regulation. This is a constructive method of resolution versus the destructive method of who is right.
How to Manage Angry Conflict
There will be times, inside or outside the cockpit, that angry conflict will take place. Should this angry conflict take place during a critical phase of flight, it will constitute a serious hazard to safety. The following tips will help you to manage the angry conflict until the problem can be resolved at a more convenient time.
Maintain Control
- If possible, suggest another time (cool off)
- Avoid sharing the anger
- Objective: To Listen
Listen
- Objective: Allow other to explain
- Use listening skills
- Open ended questions
- Probe questions
- Paraphrasing
Use Problem Sharing Approach
- Guide discussion to clarification of problem and constructive exploration of ways to resolve it
- We have a problem
- Define the problem-is it cockpit related? Cause vs effects
- Explore the alternatives and consequences - elicit and suggest
- What action should we take - pick the safest one
- Mutual commitment
- Follow-up
Maintain respect
- The use of personal insults and put-downs must be eliminated. "I wonder if we can approach this issue without attacking each other."
- Objective: To clarify the issue as objectively as possible
- Feelings are facts - do not deny the other's experience
- Separate the facts from opinion; mentally separate facts from irate expressions
Avoid Hasty Responses
- Allow time for issues (facts vs opinions) to settle
- Wait and go back later
Seek Constructive Solutions
- Explore alternatives
- Have other choose, if possible
Effective Communication
Effective communication encompasses the entire scope of the sender's verbal, non-verbal, symbolic message
Effective communication is a recognition that a variety of assumptions and other filters potentially could distort the message that is sent or received
Effective communication involves active listening for clear comprehension
Effective communication completes the circuit of sending, receiving and feedback with all parties sharing a common understanding of the message
Barriers to Communication
There are many factors which block effective communication. They are organized into three distinct categories:
1. Physical Barriers
The physical barriers are normally barriers that prevents the communication from being received - items such as noise, hearing loss, confusion, fatigue, poor radio equipment. The pilot has some control over these barriers.
2. Psycho-social
The psycho-social barriers are much harder to detect and control; stemming from inside an individual, they encompass attitudes, feeling, bias and prejudice. For example, strong negative feelings in the cockpit can lead to a total lack of communication. Hostile environments create a safety hazard. Pilots must maintain a professional attitude to help to overcome the psycho-social barrier.
3. Technique-related
The technique employed to process information can be a barrier in itself. The professional who processes information does it the same way every time. The individual answers two questions before responding or acting on any information:
- What is the literal meaning?
- What is the contextual meaning?
If these questions cannot be answered to the receiver's satisfaction, then clarification should be sought. After this, the next question should be:
- What action is appropriate in response to this communication?
This type of controlled response creates a professional atmosphere and no matter what the feelings are between the crew members this professionalism cuts through much of the personality problems.
The bottom line for Crew Resource Management skills
In promoting good communication in the cockpit
NASA tested 7,500 flight crews and determined that the
two most significant
factors in the promotion of good CRM principles were:
The Captain giving a thorough briefing
The First Officer making inquiries and advocating his/her position
Copyright © 1996-2005 by Neil C. Krey unless otherwise indicated.
Non-commercial reproduction rights granted if the following notice is included:
"Source: Neil Krey's CRM Developers Forum, http://www.crm-devel.org"