Crew Resource Management
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
Crew Resource Management
Course Objectives
Crew Resource Management
STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES AND LINE ORIENTED
FLIGHT TRAINING
Standard Operating Procedures
Line Oriented Flight Training
COMMUNICATION
Communication
Definitions
Key Facts About the Way We Communicate
Modes of Communication
Communication Process
BEHAVIORAL STYLES
Behavioral Styles
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Elements of Situational Awareness
Clues to the Loss of Situational Awareness
Maintaining Situational Awareness
Summary
LEADERSHIP
What makes a Leader?
Leadership Skills
Analytical Decision Making
Intuitive Decision Making
The Fundamentals of Crew Resource
Management
CRM Skills
PROFESSIONALISM
Definitions
Law and Ethics
Safety is an Attitude
INTRODUCTION
Crew Resource Management
This Crew Resource Management (CRM) course has been developed by Transport Canada, System Safety, Western Region.
CRM is a concept involving three main elements:
- Indoctrination and awareness training
- Practice, feedback and recurrent training
- Continuing reinforcement
This CRM course and manual utilize plain language in a non-technical format. Individual participation is imperative to gain maximum benefit from the course.
The key to the success of a CRM program is the mutual respect and confidence that is created among crew members which fosters an environment that is conducive to openness, candor, and constructive critique. The result is a more professional performance due to the synergy that is achieved in the cockpit, thereby decreasing the risk of an accident or incident.
Course Objectives
- To gain a greater awareness of the concepts, philosophies and objectives of resource management training
- To enable participants to utilize more resource management tools
- To enhance participants' abilities to utilize their most valuable resource - THEMSELVES
Crew Resource Management
For better recognition and utilization of all available resources, information, equipment and people to achieve safe and efficient flight operations
Aircraft equipment, operating procedures, navigation methods, and airworthiness safety standards have steadily improved over the last few decades. This may lead you to determine that as a result, the accident rate has improved. It has not.
Accident investigations show that approximately 70% of air carrier incidents and accidents have been caused by the failure of flight crews to make use of readily available "resources."
The concept called "Crew Resource Management" is intended to address the problem of pilots making flawed decisions or acting inappropriately because they may not have had all the information available to them at the time to complete a proper situational assessment. In many accident investigations it was found that the information was available to the pilot-in-command but tragically, it was not utilized.
The industry must address this high percentage of human factors performance errors and correct the dichotomy that may still exist in many cockpits today.
This course is intended to be a "self-awareness" program. The objective of this course is to explain the history and basic concepts of CRM, and how these concepts can improve your effective communication and leadership skills and decrease the risk of an accident or incident.
History of CRM
From the beginning of our flying careers, pilot training programs have focused almost exclusively on the technical aspects of flying and on an individual pilot's performance and problem solving capabilities. But accident statistics show that many problems encountered by flight crews have very little to do with the technical aspects of flying. It would appear that to improve the safety of flight, the priorities must shift from operating independently in a multi-crew environment to problem solving using all available resources.
CRM concepts are not designed to challenge the authority of the captain or the high degree of technical proficiency essential for safe and efficient flight operations. But a high degree of technical proficiency alone cannot guarantee safe operations. Studies have shown that marrying technical proficiency with effective crew co-ordination will provide the best opportunity for a successful flight.
Defining CRM
CRM refers to the effective use of all available resources. These resources are divided into four broad categories - people, machinery, fuel/time and information. CRM is designed to optimize the human/machine interface and accompanying interpersonal activities. These activities include team building and maintenance, information transfer, problem solving, decision making, maintaining situational awareness and dealing with automated systems.
CRM training is not limited to multi-crew pilots. Bear in mind that CRM is a concept, affecting the way you think and the way you act. It is intended to heighten attitudes and behaviour, not to change personalities. Pilots flying single-pilot, flight dispatchers, flight attendants or cabin medical attendants, maintenance personnel and air traffic controllers can all benefit from CRM training.
CRM Synergy
The acceptance of CRM concepts has been shown to provide synergy, which is the combined effect of teamwork in the cockpit which exceeds the sum of individual actions. The results of cockpit synergy would be the mathematical equivalent of 1+1=3.
Pilots must have training, practice and feedback, and continuing CRM reinforcement for the concept to be effective. It is unrealistic to expect a short training exercise to reverse years of performance programming.
Management support of individuals who attempt to act in accordance with learned CRM principles will help its success. CRM practices should also be incorporated into flight operations manuals and standard operating procedures to provide crews with necessary policy and procedures guidance.
CRM Skills
ICAO has identified six major areas that should be included in CRM training:
Communication/interpersonal skills
Specific skills associated with good communication practices include such items as polite assertiveness and participation, active listening and feedback. Polite assertiveness is a skill frequently ignored in communications training but vital to a healthy cockpit. In order to improve the communication channel, cultural influences must be taken into account as well as factors such as rank, age, and crew position, all of which can create communication barriers in the cockpit.
For example, a pilot-in-command may ordinarily be open to communication, but at times could be temporarily unable to receive information or comprehend situations. This partial or total incapacitation should be identified and addressed by the other crew member.
Other crew members must be aware of the importance of the information they hold and have a strong feeling of self-value. A crew member's failing to communicate important data constitutes a failure to discharge individual responsibility. The pilot-in-command must constantly emphasize this responsibility to other crew members.
Situational Awareness
Situational awareness refers to one's ability to accurately perceive what is going on in the cockpit and outside the aircraft. It further extends to the planning of several solutions for any emergency situation which could occur in the immediate future. Maintaining a state of awareness of one's situation is a complex process, greatly motivated by the understanding that one's perception of reality sometimes differs from reality itself. This awareness should promote on-going questioning, cross-checking, and refinement of one's perception. Constant and conscious monitoring of the situation is required.
Problem-solving / Decision-making / Judgement
These three topics are broad in spectrum, and can interrelate with each other or other skills areas. One may consider problem-solving as a cycle of events beginning with information input and ending with making a final decision. During the phase in which information is requested and offered, some conflicting points of view or differences of opinion may be represented. The concept of "legitimate avenue of dissent" is an important vehicle for clearing the air, maintaining lines of communication and maintaining self-image. Skills in resolving conflicts are therefore especially appropriate at this time.
All decisions must come from the pilot-in-command and supported by all crew members. The team will fail if command authority is not acknowledged at all times. The inflight, immediate post-decision review is also a vital concept for promoting good decision-making.
Leadership/"followership"
In this area, there is clear recognition that the command role carries a special responsibility.
The pilot-in-command is responsible for accessing and managing all resources that are available and pertinent for the safe completion of a flight. This process will ensure that informed decisions are made and if required, specific duties delegated.
Similarly, every non-command crew member is responsible for actively contributing to the team effort, for monitoring changes in the situation, and for being assertive when necessary. This is especially important when flying with a pilot-in-command who does not subscribe to the CRM concept.
Stress Management
Any kind of emergency situation generates stress, but there is also the residual stress (both physical and mental) that a crew member might bring to a situation which may be difficult for others to detect. A crew member's over-all fitness to fly may be affected because of fatigue, mental or emotional problems, to the extent that other crew members should be on the alert for any performance decline or subtle incapacitation.
Skills related to stress management refer not only to one's ability to perceive and accommodate the stress in others but primarily to anticipate, recognize and cope with one's own stress as well. This would include psychological stresses such as those related to crew scheduling, anxiety over check-rides, career and achievement stresses, inter-personal problems with either the cabin crew or other flight crew member, as well as the home and work interface, including related domestic problems. It would also include so-called life event stresses, such as those related to the death of a spouse, divorce or marriage, all of which represent major life changes.
Several operators are attempting to alleviate stress problems by encouraging open and frank communications between operational management and flight crew members, and by viewing stress as part of the "fitness to fly" concept. Management must be open to understanding stress problems and to encourage managers and other non-crew personnel to attend CRM training.
Critique
Skills of critique generally refer to the ability to analyze a future, current, or past plan of action. Techniques for accomplishing critique vary according to the availability of time, resources, and information. Three basis types of critique are distinguished:
- pre-mission analysis and planning
- on-going review as part of the in-flight problem solving process
- post-mission debriefing
All three are important but can sometimes be overlooked in either flight operations or during instruction. The art of critique is not to dwell on the negative, but to accentuate the positive and to encourage participation from the team.
Challenges of CRM
Pilots are conditioned to believe that they are automated, performance-oriented beings, capable of amazing feats. The fact that pilots are now encouraged to acknowledge that they have feelings, or to admit that they might be in a bad mood, seems to conflict with the very fibre of the pilot's existence. To admit any "weakness" may appear to show a loss of confidence contrary to the image of what a pilot is expected to portray. But the fact of the matter is, pilots are human. Humans are not perfect 100% of the time, as we have seen in many accident cases.
As a pilot, the ability to tap another crew member as an available resource will help to compensate for the subjective human factors performance errors involved in decision making and risk management. Managing the crew resources will help to ensure that all decisions and actions are in accordance with safe flight practices, and reduce the risk of an incident or accident.
What CRM IS and IS NOT
CRM IS
- A comprehensive system for improving crew performance
- A process addressing the entire crew and other related staff
- A system that can be extended to all forms of air crew training
- A concentration on crew member attitudes and behaviors and their impact on safety
- An opportunity for individuals to examine their behavior and make individual decisions on how to improve cockpit teamwork
- A utilization of the crew as the unit of training
- Active participation training that focuses on safety improvement
- Is self-convincing
CRM IS NOT
- A quick fix that can be implemented overnight
- A training program administered to only a few specialized or "fix-it" cases
- A system that occurs independent of other ongoing training activities
- A psychological assessment or personality profile
- A system where crews are given a specific prescription of how to work with others on the flight deck
- Another form of individually-centred crew training
- A passive lecture-style classroom course
- An attempt by management to dictate cockpit behavior
Five Elements of CRM
Inquiry
Inquiry is every crew member's right and responsibility. Inquiry is a mode of behaviour that causes an individual to question, scrutinize, and investigate all that is happening. It is curiosity, skepticism, interest; it maximizes learning and awareness at all times and ensures larger gains in knowledge from each experience. Inquiry is the opposite of complacency.
Crew members who practice inquiry, question or investigate what others are doing, believing or proposing. In addition, they recognize that their own knowledge, beliefs, and actions could be wrong and are continuously challenging them.
The undetected problem presents a unique difficulty for flight crews. Active inquiry is an approach that stimulates early detection and definition of problems by helping crew members sense a discrepancy between what is and what should be occurring. Inquiry is also useful in sorting out what is going on from what appears to be going on. Nothing is taken for granted. Human errors are reduced by exposing and correcting them at an early stage.
Advocacy
The essence of advocacy involves a crew member accepting the obligation to speak out in support of a course of action different from that is currently being planned or followed. At the same time, it is listening to viewpoints that may be contradictory to one's own.
An inviting question such as "Does anyone have a problem with...?" Encourages others to bring up alternatives that might be considered before a decision or course of action is finalized. Similarly, the phrase "I have a problem with that..." Signals to other crew members that a reservation exists that merits examination. This kind of concern is constructive questioning that represents a respect and a desire to support authority, rather than a resentment of authority.
Verbal communication in a forthright and relevant manner increases the likelihood that information will be understood and accepted; then problems can be anticipated and dealt with soundly. Advocacy is the obligation to support a position firmly, but to also respond to a sound alternative when one is put forth. For example, a crew member whose own proposed action has proven to be unsound, accepts the sound action without reservation. This acceptance does not detract from the responsibility to remain vigilant and continue to question others thereafter.
Conflict Resolution
Conflict is inevitable. In fact, it is often beneficial if handled properly and in a constructive manner. Differences in feelings, opinions, thoughts, values, or action (actual or perceived) may lead to disagreement or dispute. Sometimes differences in personality alone can create a source of conflict.
A conflict will turn bad when a crew member is unable to cope with giving or receiving inquiry, advocacy or critique constructively. This conflict can polarize crew members to the point that the real problem or issue is not probed. Heated arguments can lead to bitter words or bad feelings and will ultimately effect performance unless the disagreement is brought into the open and resolved.
Alternatively, conflict can be transformed into a lively comparison of viewpoints that lead to deeper thinking, better problem definition, and sound solutions. Under these conditions, conflict resolution can provide a basis for mutual understanding and respect which strengthens, rather than erodes, team effectiveness.
Conflict resolution which holds the underlying question of who is right is destructive, conflict resolution which is focused on the question of what is right is constructive.
Decision Making
Many types of decisions are made during the course of the flight. Some decisions of high quality can be made singularly by one member of the crew; other decisions are of such complexity or importance that the inputs from more than one crew member, or from an outside source, are necessary to ensure higher quality decisions.
When all information is resourced and analyzed, the likelihood is increased that crew members become aware of potential problems they otherwise would not have appreciated, thus can take steps to deal with them in a sound way. In no way does the consideration of all appropriate resources in the decision making process diminish the ultimate authority of the Captain. When decisions are made in this optimum manner based on a maximum of information, there exists a high potential for success, respect among crew members and commitment to full support in implementing the decision.
Critique
Critique - used in the context of CRM - refers to discussions among crew members regarding the conduct of the flight. It begins in the planning phase, continues throughout the flight, and concludes in a post-flight debriefing. Properly utilized, critique can be initiated by any crew member at any time when he/she believes it will be helpful to the safety and efficiency of the operation. It is totally separate from the evaluation involved with line checks and proficiency checks.
Critique is essential in producing useful future insights. When frank discussions are held among crew members, misunderstandings and errors in perception can be clarified and resolved, and conflict can be dealt with before serious problems arise.
Problems in the Cockpit
- Lack of support - where one crew member fails to back up another during a high workload situation
- Standard Operating Procedures ignored -where the Captain or crew fail to complete a checklist when under time or other pressures
- Stress problems - where a crew experiences difficult in adapting to unusual or emergency situations
- Judgment problems - where management of priorities and cockpit distractions distort the judgment process
- Emotional problems - where aggression or extreme submissiveness in the cockpit affect personal relations; or where there is a carryover of domestic worries or job conflict
- Get-Home-Itis - where failure to divert or in making a go-around decision occurs
- Management pressure - where there is a deferral to management the authority to expedite departure before the crew is sufficiently prepared
- Discipline problems - where corners are cut or where there is inadequate control of operations in the cockpit
- Communication problems - where there are misunderstandings or non-adherence to sterile cockpit rule
Management Skills Required
To combat some of the human factors related problems identified in the cockpit, management skills must be strengthened and reinforced to reduce or eliminate seemingly needless aviation accidents:
- Use of checklists, SOPs
- Flight planning and progress monitoring
- Management of resources
- Judgment and decision making
- Communication
- Managing people
- Stress Management
- Workload assessment and time management
- Recognition and management of distractions
Copyright © 1996-2005 by Neil C. Krey unless otherwise indicated.
Non-commercial reproduction rights granted if the following notice is included:
"Source: Neil Krey's CRM Developers Forum, http://www.crm-devel.org"